| Reference | Description | Years | Resolution | Updated |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Atlas (2025) | Allen Coral Atlas’ global coral habitat map for reef extent (2025 release) | 2010-2025 | 1m | n |
| Anderson (2018) | R code to conduct data-limited stocks assessments | NA | NA | n |
| AVISO (2024) | Net change in sea level during the time series | 1993-2022 | 0.25 deg | y |
| Behrenfeld and Falkowski (1997) | Methods: Net Primary Productivity | 2003-2017 | 0.83 x 0.83 deg | NA |
| BirdLife International and Handbook of the Birds of the World (2025) | Status and distribution of marine bird species | 2024 | Global | n |
| Mcowen et al. (2017) | Global salt marsh extent and condition | 1973-2015 | Global | n |
| Campbell et al. (2022) | Global salt marsh trend | NA | Global | n |
| Bruno and Selig (2007) | Global coral condition | 2002,1980-2009,2006 | 0.5 km; 1 km; Sites (points) | n |
| Bunting et al. (2022) | Global mangrove habitat extent based on satellite imagery — used to calculate mangrove extent and trend | 1996-2020 | Polygons rasterized to 1km | n |
| Burke et al. (2011) | Presence of artisanal blast and poison (cyanide) fishing practices | 2009 | 10 km | n |
| Burke et al. (2011) | Global coral condition and trend | 2002,1980-2009,2006 | 0.5 km; 1 km; Sites (points) | n |
| DiGirolamo et al. (2022) | Sea ice extent, condition and trend; edge and shoreline metrics | 1979-2023 | 25 km | y |
| Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN) et al. (2000) | Raster data of human population | 2000-2020 | 30 arcsec | y, improved |
| CITES (2015) | Countries that signed the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) | 2017 | National | n |
| Claus et al. (2012) | Land and ocean areas for OHI land and eez regions | 2013 | 1 km | n |
| Clawson, Blanchard, and Novaglio (2025) | modeled global fishing effort (bottom trawling) | 2010-2017 | 1 deg | n |
| Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2005) | Convention on Biological Diversity: Data from Third National Report for regulation of alien species, habitat, mariculture, tourism, and water to preserve biodiversity | 2005 | National | n |
| France (2011) | La Rance (France) and Annapolis (Canada) tidal plants employment data | 2003-2010 | Points (sites) | n |
| Eriksen et al. (2014) | Plastic trash pollution in ocean | 2014 | 0.2 deg | n |
| Esri (2010) | Land and ocean areas for OHI land and eez regions | 2013 | 1 km | n |
| Free (2017) | Maps of fish stock boundaries for the original RAM Myers stock-recruit database | 2017 | Stock | n |
| Gentry et al. (2019) | Aquaculture potential for finfish and bivalves. | 2017 | 0.0083 deg | n |
| Network (2020) | A report on the change in coral and algal cover from 1980 through 2020 in GCRMN regions | 1980-2020 | NA | n |
| Halpern et al. (2008) | Modeled pollution from urban runoff from impervious surfaces | 2000 | 1 km | n |
| Halpern et al. (2008) | Modeled pollution from pesticides | 1990-2013 | 1 km (FAO data is National) | n |
| Halpern et al. (2008) | Modeled pollution from shipping and ports | 2003/2011 | 1 km | n |
| Halpern et al. (2008) | Modeled N input from fertilizer use as a proxy for nutrient pollution | 1990-2013 | 1 km (FAO data is National) | n |
| Halpern et al. (2008) | Global rocky reef habitat extent | 2005 | 2 arcmin; Points | n |
| Halpern, Frazier, et al. (2015) | Global soft-bottom subtidal habitat extent | 2001-2005 | 0.5 deg | n |
| Halpern et al. (2012) | WWF Priority and Flagship Species Lists | 2011 | Global; National | n |
| Halpern et al. (2012) | Land and ocean areas for OHI land and eez regions | 2013 | 1 km | n |
| Halpern, Longo, et al. (2015) | Land and ocean areas for OHI land and eez regions | 2013 | 1 km | n |
| Halpern, Frazier, et al. (2015) | Modeled pollution from shipping and ports | 2003/2011 | 1 km | n |
| Bunting et al. (2022) | Global mangrove habitat extent and trend, from remote sensing and assessments | 1996-2016 | Polygons rasterized to 1km | n |
| Homer et al. (2004) | Modeled pollution from urban runoff from impervious surfaces | 2000 | 1 km | n |
| International Labour Organization (2025) | Average monthly earnings of employees by sex and economic activity | 2009-2023 | annual | n |
| IUCN (2025b) | IUCN Red List of threatened species by category; sub-population status for iconic species | 1965-2024 | Global | y |
| IUCN (2025a) | IUCN spatial distribution | 2024 | Polygons rasterized to 0.5 deg | y |
| Jambeck et al. (2015) | Trends in mismanaged plastic waste for 2010 and projected for 2025 as a proxy for trash trends | 2010-2025 (projected) | National | n |
| Jari Hovila (2013) | Anomalies in intensity of ultraviolet (UV) radiation | 2005-2024 | 1 deg | y |
| Kaufmann, Kraay, and Mastruzzi (2010) | Methods: Accountability, Political Stability and Absence of Violence, Government Effectiveness, Regulatory Quality, Rule of Law, and Control of Corruption | NA | NA | NA |
| Chen and Lee (2022) | Carbon sequestration by habitat | 2022 | habitat | n |
| Lebakula et al. (2024) | Raster of data of human population | 2000-2023 | Global | n |
| Lewis et al. (2017) | Methods: Location and area of marine and terrestrial protected areas manual | NA | NA | NA |
| Luijendijk et al. (2018) | A scientific report on the deterioration of sandy beaches | 2018 | NA | n |
| Martell and Froese (2013) | Methods: Data-limited stock assessments | NA | NA | NA |
| Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2023) | Management effectiveness and access of artisanal fisheries | 2018-2022 | National | n |
| NOAA (2022) | Sea surface temperature anomalies | 1982-2022 | 4 km | n |
| NCEI (2025) | National Centers for Environmental Information Marine Microplastics geodatabase | 2021-2025 | 5m | n |
| O’Connor et al. (2009) | Jobs based on number of whale watchers in a country and a regional average number of whale watchers per employee. Includes all marine mammal watching. | 1998-2008 | National | n |
| O’Connor et al. (2009) | Total revenue from marine mammal watching | 1998-2008 | National | n |
| Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2025) | Employment in fisheries, aquaculture, and processing | 2009-2023 | annual | n |
| O’Malley (n.d.) | Net Primary Productivity database | 2003-2015 | 0.083 deg | n |
| Oostendorp and Freeman (2012) | Occupations within commercial fishing, ports and harbors, ship and boat building, tourism, and transportation and shipping | 1989-2008 | National | n |
| RAM Legacy Stock Assessment Database (2024) | Stock assesment scores data | 1800-2023 | Stock | y |
| Ricard et al. (2012) | Methods: Stock assesment RAM data | NA | NA | NA |
| Rosenberg et al. (2014) | Methods: Data-limited stocks assessments | NA | NA | NA |
| Schutte, Selig, and Bruno (2010) | Global coral change in condition | 2002,1980-2009,2006 | 0.5 km; 1 km; Sites (points) | n |
| Schwab (2017) | Composite measure of 12 aspects of economic competitiveness | 2007-2017 | National | n |
| IUCN (2025a) | Threatened Species Distribution maps (i.e., spatial data) published on the IUCN Red List | 2025 | hexagonal grid system called the ISEA10 grid | n |
| UNEP-WCMC and Short (2005) | Global seagrass habitat extent | 1934-2020 | Spatial cell scale | n |
| Social Progress Index (2021) | Index measuring quality of life indicators | 2011-2022 | National | n |
| Stern et al. (2021) | Methods: Index measuring quality of life indicators | NA | NA | NA |
| Tallis et al. (2011) | Ranks of coastal protection provided by habitats | 2011 | habitat | n |
| Thorbourne (2011) | La Rance (France) and Annapolis (Canada) tidal plants employment data | 2003-2010 | Points (sites) | n |
| Travaille et al. (2022) | Regional fisheries governance scores based on various metrics of government capacity to improve fisheries | 2021 | National | n |
| “Global Fishing Watch Data Download Portal” (2022) | Global Datasets of AIS-based Fishing Effort and Vessel Presence | 2012-2020 | 0.01 deg | n |
| UNEP-WCMC and IUCN (2024) | Location and area of marine and terrestrial protected areas | 1819-2023 | Shapefile | y |
| UN-FAO (2025) | Export tonnes and value (US dollars) and of coral, ornamental fish, fish oil, sponges, shells, and seaweeds and plants | 1976-2023 | Global | y |
| Nations (2013b) | Total revenue from commercial marine fishing | 1997-2007 | National | n |
| Nations (2013b) | Total revenue from mariculture production of marine species | 1977-2011 | National | n |
| Nations (2013a) | Revenue of Aquarium Trade Fishing derived from commodities database | 1984-2009 | National | n |
| Nations (2016) | Pesticide application data | 1990-2013 | 1 km (FAO data is National) | n |
| United Nations (2021) | N excreted in manure data | 2005-2019 | 1km (FAO data is National | n |
| United Nations (2022) | Fertilizer application data | 2005-2020 | 1 km (FAO data is National) | n |
| United Nations (2024) | Production of finfish, seaweeds, and invertebrates | 1950-2022 | National | y |
| United Nations (2025) | Catch statistics for cetaceans and marine turtles | 1950-2023 | National | y |
| communication (2011) | Global Number of Fishers, commercial fishing | 1990-2008 | National | n |
| communication (2011) | Global Number of Fishers, aquaculture | 1993-2008 | National | n |
| Nations (2012) | Total revenue from marine renewable energy | 1990/2001-2010/2008 | National | n |
| Nations (2007) | Global mangrove extents estimated by the FAO and used to define reference points for mangrove condition | 1980/1990/2000/2005 | Country | n |
| Pauly, Zeller, and Palomareas (2020) | Sea Around Us Project: Fisheries catch by species and country | 1950-2019 | National | n |
| Watson (2019) | Fisheries catch by species and gear type (tonnes/km2) | 1950-2017 | 0.5 deg | n |
| Waycott et al. (2009) | Global seagrass habitat change in condition and trends | 1879-2007 | 1 km, National | n |
| WEF (2024) | Index that measures the set of factors and policies that enable the sustainable and resilient development of the Travel and Tourism sector | 2023 | National | y, new publication |
| WHO-UNICEF (2024) | Percent population without access to improved sanitation facilities | 2000-2022 | National | n |
| Bank (2014) | Gross Domestic Product; Adjustment to all revenue data layers to factor out global economic fluctuations, in 2012 $USD | 1960-2012 | National | n |
| World Bank (2023a) | Per capita purchasing power parity (PPP) adjusted gross domestic product (GDP): GDPpcPPP | 1990-2023 | National | y |
| World Bank (2014a) | Number of people aged 15 and older who could contribute to the production of goods and services | 1990-2011 | National | n |
| Bank (2016) | Census populations for countries | 1990-2012 | National | n |
| World Bank (2014b) | Percent of the labor force unemployed but able to and looking for work | 1990-2011 | National | n |
| WorldBank (2024) | Accountability, Political Stability and Absence of Violence, Government Effectiveness, Regulatory Quality, Rule of Law, and Control of Corruption | 1996-2022 | National | y |
| WTTC (2013) | Total contribution of tourism to employment | 1988-2012 | National | n |
| WTTC (2013) | Total tourism revenue by country, adjusted by country’s relative proportion of coastal area | 1998-2012 | National | n |
| Froehlich (2018) | Avoiding the ecological limits of forage fish for fed aquaculture | 2018 | Stock | n |
| “Monterey Bay Aquarium Seafood Watch” (2023) | Scores for the sustainability of seafood | 2023 | Stock | n |
| UNEP-WCMC et al. (2018) | Global Distribution of Coral Reefs | 1954 - 2018 | National | n |
| Jayathilake and Costello (2020) | A modeled global distribution of the kelp biome; kelp extent, kelp health | 1900-2020 | Polygons rasterized to 1km | n |
| Wernberg et al. (2019) | Global kelp forest condition | 1969-2019 | Global | n |
| Spalding et al. (2007) | Classification of the world’s marine ecoregions | 2007 | Ecoregion | n |
| Krumhansl et al. (2016) | Global kelp trends | 1983-2012 | National | n |
| Tuholske et al. (2021) | Global wastewater methods | NA | NA | n |
| Halpern et al. (2022) | Global food systems crop and livestock maps, and excess nutrient methdos | NA | 1km | n |
| Murray et al. (2019) | Global tidal flat habitat extent and trend, from remote sensing | 1984-2016 | 30m | n |
| Pagad et al. (2018) | Global country level count of introduced and invasive species | 2018-2020, 2022 | National | n |
| FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department (2015) | Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations major fishing areas | NA | Supranational | n |
| UNEP-WCMC and IUCN (2024) | The most comprehensive global database on terrestrial and marine protected areas | 1800 - 2023 | 500m | y |
| Reyes-García et al. (2023) | Global list of Culturally important species | NA | continent | n |
| UNWTO (2022) | Total international arrivals, annual by country, including Overnights (tourists), Same-day (excursionists), and Total arrivals; Total number of Guests and Nights spent in accommodation establishments by domestic tourists. Data disaggregated by: All establishments, Hotels and similar establishments; Total domestic tourism trips, disaggregated by: Overnight, Same-day | 1995-2021 | National | y, new dataset |
| World Bank (2023b) | Total population, annual by country | 1960-2023 | National | y |
| Data (2023) | Total population, annual by country | 10,000 BCE-2021 | National | n |
| Statista (2023a) | Total population, annual for Saba | 2011-2023 | National | n |
| Statista (2023b) | Total population, annual for Sint Eustatius | 2011-2023 | National | n |
| CIA (2023) | GDP - per capita (PPP) compares GDP on a purchasing power parity basis divided by population as of 1 July for the same year. | 2023 | National | y |
| Zhang et al. (2024) | Global distribution of beaches by type | 2024 | 30m | n |
Theory of OHI
A comprehensive framework to assess ocean health
The Ocean Health Index assesses ocean health which we define as how well we are sustainably managing the resources that we want and need from the ocean (e.g., tourism and recreation, food provisioning).
The OHI combines many indicators into a comprehensive framework describing ocean health. This is in contrast to focusing on individual indicators, such as phosphate levels, sedimentation, biodiversity, etc. Individual indicators are important, but they provide limited information when it comes to evaluating how well an overall ecosystem is functioning. They also fail to directly assess what we actually care about in most cases, and consequently, focusing on them can hinder communication. For example, most people do not directly care about nutrient pollution, however, we do care about its effects on the ocean’s ability to provide recreation and food.
Without an overall framework to evaluate indicators, certain indicators may be overemphasized relative to their true importance due to researcher bias (most researchers believe their area of study is the most important), trends in research (what is currently considered a hot topic and is funded), and availability of data (e.g., some data is easier to collect). A model that combines multiple indicators will inevitably have flaws, but at least we know which variables are included and how they are weighted.
The role of humans
One of the primary contributions of the OHI is that it recognizes people are an important part of the marine system. Both conservation and extractive use of ocean resources are valued, and consequently, scores are highest when we maximize the benefits we receive while maintaining sustainability so we can continue to receive benefits now and into the future. One temptation of indicator development is to focus only on the pressures that humans apply to systems. This makes sense because we want to be sure we are adequately protecting resources. However, eliminating all pressures on the ocean would require eliminating all contact between humans and the ocean. Beyond being unrealistic, this is undesirable because we would stop receiving all the benefits that we rely on from the ocean. The OHI is unique because it tracks both the pressures we put on oceans as well as the benefits we receive.
Yearly assessments
The global Ocean Health Index has been assessed every year since 2012. The primary goal of each yearly assessment is to calculate a new year of scores using the most recent data. Often, in addition to incorporating an additional year of data, we make improvements to models or decide to use different data sources. To ensure that scores for all years are comparable, we recalculate scores for previous scenario years for each assessment using new methods and data sources. For the current assessment, for example, in addition to calculating the current year’s scores, we recalculate scores for every year since 2012. Consequently, comparisons among years should always be performed using data from the same assessment year so trends in scores reflect changes to ocean health rather than changes to methods.
Not all data layers are reported through the most current assessment year, and consequently, the OHI scores are calculated using the most recent year of available data. Details on which years are used for each data layer are provided in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2. Data sources used to create data layers (click to expand)
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